To provide guidance to clinicians about best practices, the Wilderness Medical Society convened an expert panel to develop evidence-based guidelines for prevention and treatment of acute mountain sickness, high altitude cerebral edema, and high altitude pulmonary edema. These guidelines present the main prophylactic and therapeutic modalities for each disorder and provide recommendations about their role in disease management. Recommendations are graded based on the quality of supporting evidence and balance between the benefits and risks/burdens according to criteria put forth by the American College of Chest Physicians. The guidelines also provide suggested approaches to prevention and management of each disorder that incorporate these recommendations. This is an updated version of the original WMS Consensus Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Acute Altitude Illness published in Wilderness & Environmental Medicine 2010;21(2):146–155.
Key Words
Introduction
Travel to elevations above 2500 m is associated with risk of developing one or more forms of acute altitude illness: acute mountain sickness (AMS), high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), and high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE). Because large numbers of people travel to such elevations, many clinicians are faced with questions from patients about the best means to prevent these disorders. In addition, healthcare providers working at facilities in high altitude regions or as part of expeditions traveling to such areas can expect to see persons who are suffering from these illnesses and must be familiar with prophylactic regimens and proper treatment protocols.
To provide guidance to clinicians and disseminate knowledge about best practices in this area, the Wilderness Medical Society (WMS) convened an expert panel to develop evidence-based guidelines for prevention and treatment of acute altitude illness. Prophylactic and therapeutic modalities are presented for each disorder and recommendations made about their role in disease management. Recommendations are graded based on the quality of supporting evidence and consideration of benefits and risks/burdens for each modality.
Methods
The expert panel was originally convened at the 2009 Annual Meeting of the WMS in Snowmass, Colorado. Members were selected by the WMS based on their clinical or research experience. Relevant articles were identified through the MEDLINE database using a key word search using the terms acute mountain sickness, high altitude pulmonary edema, high altitude cerebral edema, treatment, prevention, acetazolamide, dexamethasone, ibuprofen, nifedipine, tadalafil, sildenafil, and salmeterol. Peer-reviewed studies related to prevention and treatment of acute altitude illnesses, including randomized controlled trials, observational studies, and case series, were reviewed, and the level of evidence supporting various prophylaxis and treatment modalities was assessed. Abstract-only studies were not included. Conclusions from review articles were not considered in the formulation of recommendations but are cited as part of efforts to provide background information on the various diseases and their management. The panel used a consensus approach to develop recommendations regarding each modality and graded each recommendation according to criteria stipulated in the American College of Chest Physicians statement on grading recommendations and strength of evidence in clinical guidelines (see online Supplementary Table 1).
1
Defining the Threshold for High Altitude and Where to Apply These Guidelines
There is a risk of high altitude illness when unacclimatized individuals ascend to more than 2500 m. Prior studies and extensive clinical experience, however, suggest that susceptible individuals can develop AMS, and potentially HAPE, at elevations as low as 2000 m.
2
, 3
, 4
Part of the difficulty of defining a specific threshold at which altitude illness can develop is the fact that the symptoms and signs of AMS, the most common form of altitude illness, are highly nonspecific, as demonstrated in several studies in which subjects met criteria for the diagnosis of AMS despite no gain in altitude.5
, 6
, 7
As a result, studies assessing AMS incidence at modest elevations may label individuals as having altitude illness when, in fact, symptoms are related to some other process, thereby falsely elevating the incidence of the disease at that elevation.Recognizing the difficulty in defining a clear threshold, the expert panel recommends an approach to preventing and treating acute altitude illness that does not depend strictly on the altitude to which an individual is traveling. Altitude illness is more common above 2500 m but can be seen at lower elevations. As a result, preventive measures should be considered not only based on the altitude to which the individual is traveling but should also take into account factors such as the prior history of performance at high altitude, rate of ascent, and availability of rest days for acclimatization (described in greater detail below). Similarly, the diagnoses of AMS, HAPE, or HACE should not be excluded simply based on the fact that an individual is ill below 2500 m. They should be strongly considered in the presence of compatible clinical features with careful attempts to exclude other entities such as severe dehydration, hyponatremia, pneumonia, or hypoglycemia, which may present in a similar manner.
Acute Mountain Sickness and High Altitude Cerebral Edema
Information on the epidemiology, clinical presentation, and pathophysiology of AMS and HACE is provided in several extensive reviews.
8
, 9
, 10
, 11
From a clinical standpoint, HACE represents an extreme form of AMS and, as a result, preventive and treatment measures for the 2 disorders can be addressed simultaneously.Prevention
Prophylactic measures for AMS and HACE, the evidence supporting them, and their recommendation grades are described below. Further information about how to apply these measures is then provided as part of a suggested approach to prevention.
Gradual ascent
Controlling the rate of ascent, in terms of the number of meters gained per day, is a highly effective means of preventing acute altitude illness; however, aside from 2 recent prospective studies,
12
, 13
this strategy has largely been evaluated retrospectively.14
In planning the rate of ascent, the altitude at which someone sleeps is considered more important than the altitude reached during waking hours. Recommendation Grade: 1B.Acetazolamide
Multiple trials have established a role for acetazolamide in prevention of AMS.
15
, 16
, 17
, 18
The recommended adult dose for prophylaxis is 125 mg twice daily (Table 1). Although doses up to 750 mg daily are effective at preventing AMS compared with placebo, they are associated with more frequent or increased side effects, do not convey greater efficacy, and, therefore, are not recommended for prevention. Recommendation Grade: 1A. The pediatric dose of acetazolamide is 2.5 mg/kg/dose (maximum 125 mg/dose) every 12 hours.19
Recommendation Grade: 1C.Table 1Recommended dosages for medications used in the prevention and treatment of altitude illness
| Medication | Indication | Route | Dosage |
| Acetazolamide | AMS, HACE Prevention | Oral | 125 mg twice a day |
| Pediatrics: 2.5 mg/kg every 12 hours | |||
| AMS Treatment | Oral | 250 mg twice a day | |
| Pediatrics: 2.5 mg/kg every 12 hours | |||
| Dexamethasone | AMS, HACE Prevention | Oral | 2 mg every 6 hours or 4 mg every 12 hours |
| Pediatrics: Should not be used for prophylaxis | |||
| AMS, HACE Treatment | Oral, IV, IM | AMS: 4 mg every 6 hours | |
| HACE: 8 mg once then 4 mg every 6 hours | |||
| Pediatrics: 0.15 mg/kg/dose every 6 hours | |||
| Nifedipine | HAPE Prevention | Oral | 30 mg ER version every 12 hours |
| HAPE Treatment | Oral | 30 mg ER version every 12 hours | |
| Tadalafil | HAPE Prevention | Oral | 10 mg twice a day |
| Sildenafil | HAPE Prevention | Oral | 50 mg every 8 hours |
| Salmeterol | HAPE Prevention | Inhaled | 125 μg twice a day |
AMS, acute mountain sickness; ER, extended release; HACE, high altitude cerebral edema; HAPE, high altitude pulmonary edema.
a Acetazolamide can also be used at this dose as an adjunct to dexamethasone in HACE treatment, but dexamethasone remains the primary treatment for that disorder.
b Should not be used as monotherapy and should only be used in conjunction with oral medications.
Dexamethasone
Prospective trials have established a benefit for dexamethasone in AMS prevention.
20
, 21
The recommended adult doses are 2 mg every 6 hours or 4 mg every 12 hours. Very high doses (4 mg every 6 hours) may be considered in very high-risk situations such as military or search and rescue personnel being airlifted to altitudes greater than 3500 m with immediate performance of physical activity but should not be used outside these limited circumstances. The duration of use should not exceed 10 days to prevent glucocorticoid toxicity or adrenal suppression. Recommendation Grade: 1A. Dexamethasone should not be used for prophylaxis in the pediatric population because of the potential for side effects unique to this population and the availability of other safe alternatives—specifically graded ascent and acetazolamide.Ginkgo biloba
Although several trials have demonstrated a benefit of ginkgo in AMS prevention,
22
, 23
several negative trials have also been published.24
, 25
This discrepancy may result from differences in the source and composition of the ginkgo products.26
Acetazolamide is considered far superior prophylaxis for AMS prevention. Recommendation Grade: 2C.Ibuprofen
Two trials have demonstrated that ibuprofen (600 mg 3 times a day) is more effective than placebo at preventing AMS
27
, 28
; however, these trials did not include a comparison with acetazolamide. That comparison has been made in only a single other trial, which found equal incidence of high altitude headache and AMS between the 2 groups.29
No studies have compared ibuprofen with dexamethasone. Clinical experience with ibuprofen to prevent AMS is not extensively documented, so at this time ibuprofen cannot be recommended over acetazolamide and dexamethasone for AMS prevention. Recommendation Grade: 2B.Preacclimatization and staged ascent
Several studies have shown that repeated exposure to hypobaric or normobaric hypoxia in the time preceding a high altitude excursion (referred to as preacclimatization) or spending up to 6 to 7 days at a moderate altitude (approximately 2200–3000 m) before proceeding to higher altitudes (referred to as staged ascent) decreases the risk of AMS, improves ventilation and oxygenation, and blunts the pulmonary artery pressure response after subsequent ascent to higher altitudes.
30
, 31
, 32
Implementation of such strategies may be logistically difficult. Because the optimal methods for preacclimatization and staged ascent have not been fully determined, the panel recommends consideration of these approaches, but cannot endorse a particular protocol regarding their implementation. In general, short-term exposures (eg, 15–60 minutes of exposure to hypoxia, or a few hours of hypoxia a few times before ascent) are unlikely to be of use, whereas longer exposures (eg, >8 h/d for >7 days) are more likely to yield benefit. Recommendation Grade: 1C.Other options
Chewed coca leaves, coca tea, and other coca-derived products are commonly recommended for travelers in the Andes for prophylaxis, and anecdotal reports suggest they are now being used by trekkers in Asia and Africa for similar purposes. Their utility in prevention of altitude illness has never been studied, however, and they should not be substituted for other established preventive measures described in these guidelines. Multiple studies have sought to determine whether other agents, including antioxidants, leukotriene receptor blockers, phosphodiesterase inhibitors, salicylic acid, spironolactone, and sumatriptan, can prevent AMS, but the current state of evidence does not support a role in AMS prevention for any of these agents. “Forced” or overhydration has also never been shown to prevent altitude illness and may even increase the risk of hyponatremia; however, maintenance of adequate hydration is important because symptoms of dehydration can mimic those of AMS.
Suggested approach to AMS/HACE prevention
Because the physiologic responses to high altitude and rates of acclimatization vary considerably between individuals, clinicians must recognize that the recommendations that follow, although generally effective, will not guarantee successful prevention in all high altitude travelers. The approach to prevention of AMS and HACE should be a function of the risk profile of the individual traveling to high altitude (Table 2). In low-risk situations, prophylactic medications are not necessary and individuals should rely on a gradual ascent profile. Above an altitude of 3000 m, individuals should not increase the sleeping elevation by more than 500 m per day and should include a rest day (ie, no ascent to higher sleeping elevation) every 3 to 4 days. The increase in sleeping elevation should be less than 500 m for any given day of a trip. In many areas, terrain and other logistical factors often prevent strict adherence to this approach and mandate larger gains in sleeping elevation in a single day. In such cases, rest days should be strongly considered before or after such large gains in elevation and elsewhere in the itinerary to ensure that the overall ascent rate averaged over the entire trip (eg, total elevation gain divided by the number of days of ascent during the trip) falls below the 500 m/d threshold.
Table 2Risk categories for acute mountain sickness
| Risk category | Description |
|---|---|
| Low |
|
| Moderate |
|
| High |
|
AMS, acute mountain sickness; HACE, high altitude cerebral edema.
Notes:
- •Altitudes listed in the table refer to the altitude at which the person sleeps.
- •Ascent is assumed to start from elevations <1200 m.
- •The risk categories described above pertain to unacclimatized individuals.
Prophylactic medications should be considered in addition to gradual ascent for use in moderate-to-high risk situations. Acetazolamide is the preferred agent, but dexamethasone may be used as an alternative in individuals with prior history of intolerance of or allergic reaction to acetazolamide. In rare circumstances (eg, military or rescue teams who must ascend rapidly to and perform physical work >3500 m), consideration can be given to concurrent use of acetazolamide and dexamethasone. This strategy should be avoided except in these particular or other emergency circumstances that mandate a very rapid ascent.
Acetazolamide carries a low risk of cross-reactivity in persons with sulfonamide allergy, but persons with known allergy to sulfonamide medications should consider a supervised trial of acetazolamide before the trip, particularly if planning travel into an area remote from medical resources.
33
A history of anaphylaxis to sulfonamide medications should be considered a contraindication to acetazolamide. Acetazolamide and dexamethasone should be started the day before ascent (but will still have beneficial effects if started on the day of ascent). For individuals ascending to and staying at the same elevation for more than several days, prophylaxis may be stopped after 2 days at the target altitude. Individuals ascending faster than the recommended ascent rates should continue prophylaxis for a total of 4 days after arrival at the target altitude. Recommendation Grade: 2C. For individuals ascending to a high point and then descending toward the trailhead (eg, descending from the summit of Kilimanjaro), prophylactic medications should be stopped once descent is initiated.Treatment
Potential therapeutic options for AMS and HACE include the following.
Descent
When feasible, descent remains the single best treatment for AMS and HACE. However, it is not necessary in all circumstances (discussed further below). Individuals should descend until symptoms resolve, unless impossible because of terrain. Symptoms typically resolve after descent of 300 to 1000 m, but the required descent will vary between persons. Individuals should not descend alone, particularly in cases of HACE. Recommendation Grade: 1A.
Supplemental oxygen
Oxygen delivered by nasal cannula at flow rates sufficient to raise SpO2 to >90% provides a suitable alternative to descent. Use is not required in all circumstances and is generally reserved for severe cases when descent is not feasible. Unlike at hospitals or large clinics, the supply of oxygen may be limited at remote high altitude clinics or on expeditions, necessitating careful use of this therapy. Recommendation Grade: 1C.
Portable hyperbaric chambers
These devices are effective for treating severe altitude illness
34
, 35
but require constant tending by care providers and are difficult to use with claustrophobic or vomiting patients. Symptoms may recur when individuals are removed from the chamber.36
Use of a portable hyperbaric chamber should not delay descent in situations in which descent is feasible. Recommendation Grade: 1B.Acetazolamide
Only 1 study has examined acetazolamide for treatment of AMS. The dose studied was 250 mg twice daily and whether a lower dose might suffice is unknown.
37
Recommendation Grade: 1B. No studies have assessed treatment of AMS in pediatric patients, but anecdotal reports suggest it has utility in this regard. The pediatric treatment dose is 2.5 mg/kg/dose twice daily up to a maximum of 250 mg/dose. Recommendation Grade: 1C.Dexamethasone
Dexamethasone is very effective in the treatment of AMS.
38
, 39
, 40
The medication does not facilitate acclimatization, and further ascent should be delayed until the patient is asymptomatic while off the medication. Recommendation Grade 1B. Extensive clinical experience supports the use of dexamethasone in patients with HACE. It is administered as an 8-mg dose (IM, IV, or PO) followed by 4 mg every 6 hours until symptoms resolve. The pediatric dose is 0.15 mg/kg/dose every 6 hours.19
Recommendation Grade: 1C.Suggested approach to AMS/HACE treatment
Care should be taken to exclude disorders whose symptoms and signs may resemble those seen in AMS and HACE, such as dehydration, exhaustion, hypoglycemia, hypothermia, or hyponatremia.
8
Persons with altitude illness of any severity should stop ascending and may need to consider descent depending on the clinical circumstances and severity of illness (Table 3).8
Patients with AMS can remain at their current altitude and use nonopiate analgesics for headache and antiemetics for gastrointestinal symptom relief; that may be all that is required. Acetazolamide will help treat AMS by facilitating acclimatization through increased ventilation and diuresis, but these physiologic effects may work better for prevention than for treatment. Although acetazolamide is good for treating mild illness, experienced clinicians have found dexamethasone a more reliably effective treatment for moderate-to-severe disease, which often requires descent as well. Individuals with AMS may resume their ascent once symptoms resolve, but further ascent or reascent to a previously attained altitude should never be undertaken in the face of ongoing symptoms. After resolution of AMS, reascent with acetazolamide is prudent.Table 3Acute mountain sickness classification
| Category | Mild AMS | Moderate-severe AMS | High altitude cerebral edema (HACE) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Symptoms | Headache plus one or more other symptoms (nausea/vomiting; fatigue, lassitude, dizziness; difficulty sleeping) | Headache plus one or more other symptoms (nausea/vomiting; fatigue, lassitude, dizziness; difficulty sleeping) | Worsening of symptoms seen in moderate-severe AMS |
| All symptoms of mild intensity | All symptoms of moderate-severe intensity | ||
| Signs | None | None | Ataxia, severe lassitude, altered mental status, encephalopathy |
| Lake Louise AMS Score | 2–4 | 5–15 | Not applicable |
a Self-report AMS score.
43
HACE is differentiated from severe AMS by neurological signs such as ataxia, confusion, or altered mental status in the setting of acute ascent to high altitude and may follow AMS or occur concurrently with HAPE. Individuals developing HACE in populated areas with access to hospitals or specialized clinics should be started on supplemental oxygen and dexamethasone. In remote areas away from medical resources, descent should be initiated in any suspected HACE victim or if symptoms of AMS are not responding to conservative measures or treatment with acetazolamide or dexamethasone. If descent is not feasible owing to logistical issues, supplemental oxygen or a portable hyperbaric chamber should be considered. Persons with HACE should also be started on dexamethasone. No further ascent should be attempted until the victim is asymptomatic and no longer taking dexamethasone.
High Altitude Pulmonary Edema
Information on the epidemiology, clinical presentation, and pathophysiology of HAPE, the majority of which comes from studies in adults, is provided in several extensive reviews.
10
, 11
, 41
, 42
Although some of the prophylactic and therapeutic modalities are the same for HAPE as for AMS and HACE, important differences in the underlying pathophysiology of the disorder dictate different management and treatment approaches.Prevention
Potential preventive measures for HAPE include the following.
Gradual ascent
No studies have prospectively assessed whether limiting the rate of increase in sleeping elevation prevents HAPE; however, there is a clear relationship between the rate of ascent and disease incidence.
14
, 43
, 44
Recommendation Grade: 1C.Nifedipine
A single randomized, placebo-controlled study
45
and extensive clinical experience have established a role for nifedipine in HAPE prevention in susceptible individuals. The recommended dose is 30 mg of the extended-release preparation administered twice daily. Recommendation Grade: 1A.Salmeterol
In a single randomized, placebo-controlled study, the long-acting inhaled β-agonist salmeterol decreased the incidence of HAPE by 50% in susceptible individuals.
46
Very high doses (125 μg twice daily) that are often associated with side effects were used in the study. Clinical experience with the medication at high altitude is limited. As a result, salmeterol is not recommended as monotherapy but may be considered as a supplement to nifedipine. Recommendation Grade: 2B.Tadalafil
In a single randomized, placebo-controlled trial, 10 mg twice daily of tadalafil was effective in preventing HAPE in susceptible individuals.
47
The number of individuals in the study was small, and 2 subjects experienced incapacitating AMS. Clinical experience with tadalafil is lacking compared with nifedipine. As a result, further data are necessary to validate these results. Recommendation Grade: 1C.Dexamethasone
In the same study that assessed the role of tadalafil in HAPE prevention, dexamethasone (16 mg/d in divided doses) was also shown to prevent HAPE in susceptible individuals. The mechanism for this effect is not clear, and there is very little, if any, clinical experience using dexamethasone for this purpose. Further data are necessary to validate this result. Recommendation Grade: 1C.
Acetazolamide
Because acetazolamide hastens acclimatization, it should be effective at preventing all forms of acute altitude illness. It has been shown to blunt hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in animal models
48
, 49
and in a single study in humans,50
but there are no data specifically supporting a role in HAPE prevention. Clinical observations suggest acetazolamide may prevent reentry HAPE, a disorder seen in children who reside at high altitude, travel to lower elevation, and then develop HAPE upon rapid return to their residence. Recommendation Grade: 2C.Preacclimatization and staged ascent
No study has examined whether preacclimatization strategies are useful for HAPE prevention. Staged ascent, with 7 days of residence at moderate altitude (approximately 2200 m), has been shown to blunt the hypoxia-induced increase in pulmonary artery pressure, a key feature of the pathophysiology of HAPE.
31
However, uncertainty remains as to the magnitude and duration of moderate altitude exposure necessary to yield benefit, and no study has specifically investigated whether the strategy is of benefit in known HAPE-susceptible individuals. Although the risks of preacclimatization and staged ascent are likely low, feasibility is a concern for many high altitude travelers. No specific recommendations regarding the appropriate preacclimatization or staging regimen can be made at this time. Recommendation Grade: 2C.Suggested approach to HAPE prevention
As noted earlier, because the physiologic responses to high altitude and rates of acclimatization vary considerably between individuals, the recommendations that follow, while generally effective, will not guarantee successful prevention in all high altitude travelers. A gradual ascent profile is the primary recommended method for preventing HAPE; the recommended ascent rate noted above for AMS and HACE prevention also applies with HAPE prevention. Drug prophylaxis should only be considered for individuals with a prior history of HAPE, especially multiple episodes, and nifedipine is the preferred option in such situations. It should be started the day before ascent and continued either until descent is initiated or the individual has spent 4 days at the target elevation. The duration of use at the target elevation should be extended to 7 days if the individual ascended faster than recommended ascent rates. Recommendation Grade: 2C. For individuals ascending to a high point and then descending toward the trailhead (eg, descending from the summit of Kilimanjaro), prophylactic medications should be stopped once descent is initiated. Further research is needed before tadalafil or dexamethasone can be recommended for this purpose. Acetazolamide is a rational choice for HAPE prevention and clinical experience supports this, but data are lacking. Salmeterol should only be considered as a supplement to nifedipine in high-risk individuals with a clear history of recurrent HAPE.
Treatment
Potential therapeutic options for HAPE include the following.
Descent
As with AMS and HACE, descent remains the single best treatment for HAPE, but is not necessary in all circumstances. Individuals should try to descend at least 1000 m or until symptoms resolve. They should exert themselves as little as possible on descent (eg, travel without a pack or via animal transportation) because exertion can further increase pulmonary artery pressure and exacerbate edema formation. Recommendation Grade: 1A.
Supplemental oxygen
Oxygen delivered by nasal cannula or face mask at flow rates sufficient to achieve goal SpO2 greater than 90% provides a suitable alternative to descent, particularly when patients can access healthcare facilities and be monitored closely.
51
, 52
Recommendation Grade: 1B.Portable hyperbaric chambers
As with AMS and HACE, portable hyperbaric chambers can be used for HAPE treatment. They have not been systematically studied in this role, but their use in HAPE has been reported in the literature.
53
Use of a portable hyperbaric chamber should not delay descent in situations in which descent is feasible. Recommendation Grade: 1B.Nifedipine
A single, nonrandomized, unblinded study demonstrated the utility of nifedipine in HAPE treatment when oxygen or descent is not available.
54
No other treatment studies have been conducted, but there is extensive clinical experience with its use as an adjunct to oxygen or descent. Thirty milligrams of the extended-release version is administered twice daily without a loading dose. It should not be relied on as the sole therapy unless descent is impossible and access to supplemental oxygen or portable hyperbaric therapy cannot be arranged. Recommendation Grade: 1C (for use as adjunctive therapy).β-Agonists
Although there are reports of β-agonist use in HAPE treatment,
55
no data support a benefit from salmeterol or albuterol in patients suffering from HAPE. Recommendation Grade: 2C.Phosphodiesterase inhibitors
By virtue of their ability to cause pulmonary vasodilation and decrease pulmonary artery pressure, there is a strong physiologic rationale for using phosphodiesterase inhibitors in HAPE treatment. Although reports document their use for this purpose,
55
no systematic studies have examined the role of either tadalafil or sildenafil in HAPE treatment. Recommendation Grade: 2C.Continuous positive airway pressure
A small study demonstrated that expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP), in which a mask system is used to increase airway pressure during exhalation only, improved gas exchange in HAPE patients.
56
However, no studies have established that this modality or the more commonly used continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), in which a continuous level of pressure is applied to the airways through the entire respiratory cycle, improves patient outcomes. Given the low risks associated with the therapy, it can be considered an adjunct to oxygen administration in the hospital setting, provided the patient has intact mental status and can tolerate the mask. It is generally not feasible in the field setting at present but may become more feasible in the future as technology improves and smaller, battery-powered devices become more widely available. Recommendation Grade: 2B.Diuretics
Although their use has been documented in the literature,
29
diuretics have no role in HAPE treatment, particularly because many HAPE patients have concurrent intravascular volume depletion. Recommendation Grade: 2C.Dexamethasone
Considering its potential role in HAPE prevention, noted above, and studies demonstrating effects on maximum exercise capacity,
57
pulmonary inflammation, and ion-transporter function in hypoxia,58
dexamethasone may have a role in HAPE treatment. Although reports document its clinical use in this regard,59
no study has established whether it is effective for this purpose. Recommendation Grade: 2C.Suggested approach to HAPE treatment
Before initiating treatment, care should be taken to rule out other causes of respiratory symptoms at high altitude, such as pneumonia, viral upper respiratory tract infection, mucus plugging, bronchospasm, or myocardial infarction.
8
Descent is the first treatment priority in persons with HAPE. If descent cannot be initiated as a result of logistical factors, supplemental oxygen or a portable hyperbaric chamber should be used. Patients who have access to oxygen (eg, a hospital or high altitude medical clinic) may not need to descend to lower elevation and can be treated with oxygen at the current elevation. In the field setting, where resources are limited and there is a lower margin for error, nifedipine can be used as an adjunct to descent, oxygen, or portable hyperbaric therapy. It should only be used as primary therapy if none of these other measures is available. A phosphodiesterase inhibitor may be used if nifedipine is not available, but concurrent use of multiple pulmonary vasodilators is not recommended. In the hospital setting, CPAP can be considered as an adjunct to supplemental oxygen, and nifedipine can be added if patients fail to respond to oxygen therapy alone. In well-selected patients (adequate support from family or friends, adequate housing or lodging arrangements), it is feasible to discharge them from care with supplemental oxygen, rather than admitting them to a healthcare facility. There is no established role for acetazolamide, β-agonists, or diuretics in the treatment of HAPE.Individuals who develop HAPE may consider further ascent to higher altitudes or reascent to join their party only when symptoms of their disease have resolved and they maintain stable oxygenation at rest and with mild exercise while off supplemental oxygen or vasodilator therapy. Consideration may be given to using nifedipine or another pulmonary vasodilator on resuming ascent.
Suggested approach for patients with concurrent HAPE and HACE
Dexamethasone should be added to the treatment regimen of patients with concurrent HAPE and HACE at the doses described above for those with HACE. Some patients with HAPE may have neurologic dysfunction caused by hypoxic encephalopathy rather than true HACE, but making the distinction between hypoxic encephalopathy and HACE in the field can be difficult, and as a result, dexamethasone should be added to the treatment regimen for HAPE patients with neurologic dysfunction that does not resolve rapidly with administration of supplemental oxygen and improvement in the patient’s oxygen saturation. Nifedipine or other pulmonary vasodilators may be used in patients with concurrent HAPE and HACE, but care should be exercised to avoid lowering mean arterial pressure, as this may decrease cerebral perfusion pressure and as a result increase the risk for cerebral ischemia.
Conclusions
To assist practitioners caring for people planning travel to or already at high altitude, we have provided evidence-based guidelines for prevention and treatment of acute altitude illnesses, including the main prophylactic and therapeutic modalities for AMS, HACE, and HAPE, and recommendations regarding their role in disease management. Although these guidelines cover many of the important issues related to prevention and treatment of altitude illness, several important questions remain to be addressed and should serve as a focus for future research. Such research includes the optimal rate of ascent to prevent altitude illness, the role of acetazolamide in HAPE prevention and treatment, proper dosing regimens for prevention and treatment of altitude illness in the pediatric population, and the role of staged ascent and preacclimatization in altitude illness prevention.
Supplementary data
Supplementary Material
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- Wilderness Medical Society Consensus Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Acute Altitude IllnessWilderness & Environmental MedicineVol. 21Issue 2
- PreviewTo provide guidance to clinicians about best practices, the Wilderness Medical Society (WMS) convened an expert panel to develop evidence-based guidelines for the prevention and treatment of acute mountain sickness (AMS), high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), and high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE). These guidelines present the main prophylactic and therapeutic modalities for each disorder and provide recommendations for their roles in disease management. Recommendations are graded based on the quality of supporting evidence and balance between the benefits and risks/burdens according to criteria put forth by the American College of Chest Physicians.
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